Wastewater treatment - Flow Rates, Pollutants, Purification | Britannica

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There is a wide variation in sewage flow rates over the course of a day. A sewerage system must accommodate this variation. In most cities domestic sewage flow rates are highest in the morning and evening hours. They are lowest during the middle of the night. Flow quantities depend upon population density, water consumption, and the extent of commercial or industrial activity in the community. The average sewage flow rate is usually about the same as the average water use in the community. In a lateral sewer, short-term peak flow rates can be roughly four times the average flow rate. In a trunk sewer, peak flow rates may be two-and-a-half times the average.

Although sewage flows depend upon residential, commercial, and industrial connections, sewage flow rates potentially can become higher as a result of inflows and infiltration (I&I) into the sanitary sewer system. Inflows correspond to storm water entering sewers from inappropriate connections, such as roof drains, storm drains, downspouts and sump pumps. High amounts of rainwater runoff can reach the sewer system during precipitation and stormflow events or during seasonal spring flooding of rivers inundated with melting ice. Infiltration refers to the groundwater entering sewers via defective or broken pipes. In both these cases, downstream utilities and treatment plants may experience flows higher than anticipated and can become hydraulically overloaded. During such overloads, utilities may ask residents connected to the system to refrain from using dishwashers and washing machines and may even limit toilet flushing and the use of showers in an attempt to lessen the strain. Such I&I issues can be especially severe in old and aging water infrastructures.

The size and capacity of wastewater treatment systems are determined by the estimated volume of sewage generated from residences, businesses, and industries connected to sewer systems as well as the anticipated inflows and infiltration (I&I). The selection of specific on-lot, clustered, or centralized treatment plant configurations depends upon factors such as the number of customers being served, the geographical scenario, site constraints, sewer connections, average and peak flows, influent wastewater characteristics, regulatory effluent limits, technological feasibility, energy consumption, and the operations and maintenance costs involved.

The predominant method of wastewater disposal in large cities and towns is discharge into a body of surface water. Suburban and rural areas rely more on subsurface disposal. In either case, wastewater must be purified or treated to some degree in order to protect both public health and water quality. Suspended particulates and biodegradable organics must be removed to varying extents. Pathogenic bacteria must be destroyed. It may also be necessary to remove nitrates and phosphates (plant nutrients) and to neutralize or remove industrial wastes and toxic chemicals.

The degree to which wastewater must be treated varies, depending on local environmental conditions and governmental standards. Two pertinent types of standards are stream standards and effluent standards. Stream standards, designed to prevent the deterioration of existing water quality, set limits on the amounts of specific pollutants allowed in streams, rivers, and lakes. The limits depend on a classification of the “maximum beneficial use” of the water. Water quality parameters that are regulated by stream standards include dissolved oxygen, coliforms, turbidity, acidity, and toxic substances. Effluent standards, on the other hand, pertain directly to the quality of the treated wastewater discharged from a sewage treatment plant. The factors controlled under these standards usually include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids, acidity, and coliforms.

There are three levels of wastewater treatment: primary, secondary, and tertiary (or advanced). Primary treatment removes about 60 percent of total suspended solids and about 35 percent of BOD; dissolved impurities are not removed. It is usually used as a first step before secondary treatment. Secondary treatment removes more than 85 percent of both suspended solids and BOD. A minimum level of secondary treatment is usually required in the United States and other developed countries. When more than 85 percent of total solids and BOD must be removed, or when dissolved nitrate and phosphate levels must be reduced, tertiary treatment methods are used. Tertiary processes can remove more than 99 percent of all the impurities from sewage, producing an effluent of almost drinking-water quality. Tertiary treatment can be very expensive, often doubling the cost of secondary treatment. It is used only under special circumstances.

For all levels of wastewater treatment, the last step prior to discharge of the sewage effluent into a body of surface water is disinfection, which destroys any remaining pathogens in the effluent and protects public health. Disinfection is usually accomplished by mixing the effluent with chlorine gas or with liquid solutions of hypochlorite chemicals in a contact tank for at least 15 minutes. Because chlorine residuals in the effluent may have adverse effects on aquatic life, an additional chemical may be added to dechlorinate the effluent. Ultraviolet radiation, which can disinfect without leaving any residual in the effluent, is becoming more competitive with chlorine as a wastewater disinfectant.